Examples of programming languages

Here is a list non-exhaustive of programming languages :

Assembler

An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations.
In the earliest computers, programmers actually wrote programs in machine code, but assembler languages or instruction sets were soon developed to speed up programming. Today, assembler programming is used only where very efficient control over processor operations is needed. It requires knowledge of a particular computer's instruction set, however. Historically, most programs have been written in "higher-level" languages such as C. These languages are easier to learn and faster to write programs with than assembler language.


C

C is a structured, procedural programming language that has been widely used both for operating systems and applications and that has had a wide following in the academic community. Many versions of UNIX-based operating systems are written in C. With the increasing popularity of object-oriented programming, C is being rapidly replaced as "the" programming language by C++, a superset of the C language that uses an entirely different set of programming concepts.


C++

C++ is an object-oriented programming language that is now generally viewed as the best language for creating large-scale application programs. C++ is a superset of the C language.


HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

HTML is the set of "markup" symbols or codes inserted in a file intended for display on a World Wide Web browser. The markup tells the Web browser how to display a Web page's words and images for the user.
HTML is defined in practice both by Netscape and Microsoft as they add changes to their Web browsers and more officially for the industry by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). A new version of HTML called HTML 4 has recently been officially recommended by W3C, making this level an effective standard.


JavaScript

JavaScript is an interpreted programming or script language from Netscape. In general, script languages are easier and faster to code in than the more structured and compiled languages such as C and C++ and are ideal for programs of limited capability or that can reuse and tie together existing compiled programs.
JavaScript is used in Web site development to do such things as:
Automatically change a formatted date on a Web page
Cause a linked-to page to appear in a popup window
Cause text or a graphic image to change during a mouse rollover
JavaScript uses some of the same ideas found in Java, the compiled object-oriented language derived from C++. JavaScript code can be imbedded in HTML pages and interpreted by the Web browser (or client).

Types of programming errors

Programs often contain errors which may cause the program not to run or, even worse, to run but yield incorrect results. Much of the task of programming is to locate and correct these errors to produce a program that runs correctly.

There are two main classes of errors : syntax (or grammatical) errors and semantic (or logical) errors :

Syntax errors

This first class of errors that can be made are relatively easy to detect, in the first case by a human and in the second case by a compiler at compile-time. It's just like a grammar error in a language. For example in English : "I is hungry" instead of "I am hungry".

Semantic errors

This second class of errors that can be made are much harder to detect for humans and in general impossible for the compiler to pick up (obviously the computer does not know what the programmer intended). If we keep the example of the English language, it's like if you tell somebody : "Let's meet tomorrow at 8am" but you meant 8pm.

Programming style

Programming style is a term used to describe the effort a programmer should take to make his or her code easy to read and easy to understand. No two programmers write the code identically, so the way to name variables, to structure the logic, or to organize the code has to follow a certain logic.

Here are styles and conventions to help any reader to understand what the program does and why.

Basics

Minimize the number of lines of Code.
Minimize the number of variables - localize as much as possible.
Minimize the number of routines - localize as much as possible.
Modules are free standing and have a specific objective. Just keep everything simple. The fewer of anything you have in your code, the easier it is to reuse, maintain, and enhance.

Variables

Give your variables, functions, and types self-explanatory names easy to understand for everybody (including you). Make sure it's not the same as a program command. Calling them i and j is short, and easy to type, but hard to debug.

Indentation

Indent your code to make it legible. It will help you to see the blocks of the program easily. You can use whatever spacing looks good to you, but indent at least 2 spaces.

Comment

Comment your code liberally. If your program can be broken down easily into stages, comment each stage. If you have defined your own functions or datatypes, comment them extensively, explaining what they do, and what they're for. If you come up with an implementation that's in any way obscure, cute, or hacked, comment it well. You may want to use the same trick again someday, and it's helpful to know how it worked.

The Elements of Programming Style

1. Say what you mean, simply and directly.
2. Write clearly - don't be too clever.
3. Don't use conditional expressions as a substitute for a logical expression.
4. Parenthesize to avoid ambiguity.
5. Follow each decision as closely as possible with its associated action.
6. Use the good features of a language; avoid the bad ones.
7. Each module should do one thing well.
8. Make sure comments and code agree.
9. Don't just echo the code with comments - make every comment count.
10. Don't comment bad code - rewrite it.
11. Use symbolic constants for magic numbers.
12. Watch out for side effects and order of evaluation.
13. Macros are not functions.
14. Watch out for off-by-one errors.
15. Test programs at their boundaries.
16. Program defensively.
17. Make sure input cannot violate the limits of the program.
18. Make it right before you make it faster.
19. Keep it right when you make it faster.
20. Don't sacrifice clarity for small gains in efficiency.
21. Don't stop with your first draft.

The phases of development

In order to do a good computer program there are different phases of development to respect :

Problem Solving Phase

Analysis and Specification : understand (define) the problem and what the solution must do.

Algorithm Development : develop a comprehensive unambiguous logical sequence of steps to solve the problem.

Verification of Algorithm : follow steps closely (manually) to see if solution works.

Implementation Phase

Program Development : translate algorithm into a program written in a programming language.

Program Testing : test program for syntactical and logical errors. Fix the errors.

Maintenance Phase

Use : use the program to solve real world problems.

Maintain : modify the program to meet changing r

What is a computer program ?

In computing, a program is a specific set of ordered operations for a computer to perform. In the modern computer that John von Neumann outlined in 1945, the program contains a one-at-a-time sequence of instructions that the computer follows. Typically, the program is put into a storage area accessible to the computer. The computer gets one instruction and performs it and then gets the next instruction. The storage area or memory can also contain the data that the instruction operates on. (Note that a program is also a special kind of "data" that tells how to operate on "application or user data.")
Programs can be characterized as interactive or batch in terms of what drives them and how continuously they run. An interactive program receives data from an interactive user (or possibly from another program that simulates an interactive user). A batch program runs and does its work, and then stops. Batch programs can be started by interactive users who request their interactive program to run the batch program. A command interpreter or a Web browser is an example of an interactive program. A program that computes and prints out a company payroll is an example of a batch program. Print jobs are also batch programs.
When you create a program, you write it using some kind of computer language. Your language statements are the source program. You then "compile" the source program (with a special program called a language compiler) and the result is called an object program (not to be confused with object-oriented programming). There are several synonyms for object program, including object module and compiled program. The object program contains the string of 0s and 1s called machine language that the logic processor works with.
The machine language of the computer is constructed by the language compiler with an understanding of the computer's logic architecture, including the set of possible computer instructions and the length (number of bits) in an instruction.

Various forms of blogs

Using weblogs to explore various possibilities for constructing fictional works, Blog fiction is a burgeoning format for creative digital writing and distribution on the Internet, rising in popularity when free, automated blog generators began appearing in 1999 and, most likely, will come to full artistic fruition within the iGeneration. Echoing eighteenth century pamphleteering and the serialized publication of fictional works from the eighteenth century to the present day, such as Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy (1759-67), many of Charles Dickens' novels, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes series, and Henry James' The Ambassadors (1903, with each of its twelve parts appearing in The North American Review before being published as a whole that same year), blog fiction appears in short installments of textual pieces, lexia, that must both stand on their own and work towards a larger whole. Congruent with the general shrinking attention spans of the Internet Age, each episode in blog fiction is much shorter than a serialized nineteenth century or early twentieth century novel. As blog fictionist Diego Doval asks, "is it possible to create a story that makes sense, keeps the reader engaged, and yet can be 'consumed' in bits and pieces, maybe even in any order?" (see "What is Plan B?"). Doval's comment reflects the contemporary writer's conundrum, caught between models of high literature and the avant-garde that dare to provoke, challenge and even bore readers on one hand and the insatiable desires of late capitalist consumers for "entertainment" within a channel-flicking, website-saturated universe of endless choices. The sheer volume of quickly-accessible written material within "clickable culture" exacerbates the artistic quandary for the blog fictionist, especially because of the myriad of non-fiction blogs and electronic writing available. Isabella V likewise comments, "You, humble reader, if you do in fact exist. If you even care. You are my safety net. In return I suppose I have to keep you entertained. Keep you reading. That's the bargain. Keep your watchful eye on me- so that you might notice if I vanish suddenly. So that you might ask the questions that would save me. I will, in turn, try to keep you reading"

By media type

A blog comprising videos is called a vlog, one comprising links is called a linklog, or one comprising photos is called a photoblog.

By deviceBlogs

can also be defined by which type of device is used to compose it. A blog written by a mobile device like a mobile phone or PDA is called a moblog.

Genre

Some blogs focus on a particular subject, such as political blogs or travel blogs or legal blogs (often referred to as a blawg).Legal status of publishersA blog can be private, as in most cases, or it can be for business purposes. Blogs, either used internally to enhance the communication and culture in a corporation or externally for marketing, branding or PR purposes are called corporate blogs.Blog search enginesSeveral blog search engines are used to search blog contents (also known as the blogosphere), such as blogdigger, Feedster, and Technorati. Technorati provides current information on both popular searches and tags used to categorize blog postings.

Crisis of legitimation

Though many critics and literary scholars dismiss blog fiction as an inferior and faddish literary form, there is a trend towards the recognition of blogs as a legitimate arena of fiction production. For instance, self-publishing provider Lulu sponsors the "Blooker" prize, which began in 2006. The Blooker prize is an award given to the best "blook" of the year: a work of fiction begun as blog fiction and then transformed into a printed publication. Thus, even despite the radical and democratizing potential of blog fiction, printed works still maintain greater authority and "official" status in the world of fiction and academia.

Educational values of blogs

Blogs have many uses especially in educational fields. They provide information to the reader or visitor. It also develops our creativity and awakening our mind to technological advancement in the trend of computers. And these blogs serves as a tool of communication today.
There seems to be a consensus in the (education) literature about the importance of discourse and dialogue in learning. While blogs are certainly communication tools that can accommodate dialogic communication, there are all kinds of other communications-technology tools that can do the same thing.

Eye Talk

What makes Daniel Barenboim differ from his contemporaries?

- Daniel Barenboim is a musician who makes the music of love, peace and unity which inspires the people and also his colleagues, that's what makes him different.

Do you think he is justified on what he was doing?

- "No, it's not. The conductor decides on the orchestra, the times, the music etc. But when the orchestra plays and it is either unwilling or unable to play like the conductor wanted, he is totally powerless. And as powerlessness often does, it makes people think they are very powerful. And that's why conductors' egos are so famous" daniel said.

If Daniel were in the Philippines, what similar issues do you think you would address?

- Well, it will be pretty good if daniel were here because daniel is a musician who makes the music of peace, unity and love as stated above, he can touch the hearts of the terrorists and begin united as well as the beginning of prosperity arise.